Eny Yulianti, Warsito Warsito, Akhmad Sabarudin, Bayyinatul Muchtaromah, Ivvani Aulia Putri, Siti Amanatus Sholikah
The extraction efficiency of bioactive compounds from Camellia sinensis (black tea) strongly influences its antioxidant and photoprotective performance. This study compared three water-based extraction methods—boiling (BL), ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE), and microwave–ultrasonic-assisted extraction (MUAE)—in terms of extraction yield, total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity, and in vitro sun protection factor (SPF). The combined MUAE treatment, consisting of 4 min of microwave pre-heating followed by 45 min of ultrasound (M4UAE45), produced the most effective extract, exhibiting the highest TPC (457.64 ± 2.31 mg GAE/g), the lowest IC₅₀ value (2.97 ± 0.41 ppm), and the highest SPF (45.4 ± 0.59). This study provides a novel and systematic comparison of fully water-based MUAE with conventional boiling and UAE methods for black tea and to the best of our knowledge, this study establishes a direct correlation between optimized water-based MUAE conditions and enhanced phenolic recovery and SPF performance. These improvements arise from a synergistic cell disruption mechanism in which microwave-induced structural damage and ultrasonic cavitation promote rapid and efficient release of phenolic constituents. FTIR spectra supported the presence of predominant hydroxyl and aromatic functional groups characteristic of polyphenols, supporting the higher phenolic abundance observed in MUAE extracts. Overall, the M4UAE45 protocol emerges as a green, efficient, and scalable strategy for producing phenolic-rich black tea extracts with strong antioxidant and UV-protective properties, highlighting their potential application as natural active ingredients in cosmetic and pharmaceutical sunscreen formulations. © 2026 Author (s).
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Science, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia; Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University, Malang, Indonesia; Biology Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University, Malang City, Indonesia
