Mohammad Miftakhus Sholikin, Sugiharto Sugiharto, Danung Nur Adli, Jedda Ayu Inggrida, Mochamad Dzaky Alifian, Tri Ujilestari
The thermal processing of beef and beef products results in the generation of toxic compounds known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Among these, the four primary compounds, collectively known as Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons — 4 indicator compounds (PAH4), are benzo[a]pyrene (BAP), chrysene (CHR), benzo[a]anthracene (BAA), and benzo[b]fluoranthene (BBF). This study aimed to evaluate the effects of various factors, including product type, marination, cooking technique, fuel type, surface temperature, internal temperature, cooking duration, and cooking distance, on PAH4 levels in beef. A meta-analysis of 28 articles indicated that thermally processed beef had significantly higher PAH4 levels than did the control beef (g’ = 1.64; P < 0.001). Smoking caused greater PAH4 buildup than did grilling and barbecuing (g’ > 0.8; P < 0.001). Notably, the highest PAH4 levels were observed when coal and wood fuels were used (g’ > 0.8; P < 0.001). Furthermore, significantly greater PAH4 formation (g’ > 0.8; P < 0.001) was associated with surface temperatures of 201–350 °C, internal temperatures of 71–75 °C, and cooking durations longer than 30 min. Overall, thermal processing increases PAH4 levels in beef, with smoking and grilling posing the greatest risks, particularly when solid fuels such as coal and wood fuels are used at high temperatures. © 2025 Elsevier Ltd
Research Center for Animal Husbandry, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, 16915, Indonesia; Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Animal and Agricultural Sciences, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang, 50275, Indonesia; Smart Livestock Industry Study Program, Department of Feed and Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Science, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, 65145, Indonesia; Social and Economic of Agriculture, Agribusiness Program Study (Kediri Campus), Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Brawijaya, East Java, Malang, 65145, Indonesia
