Sherry Aristyani, Aditya Tri Hernowo, Veranica Dwi Agustin, Sutiman B. Sumitro
Nanobubbles have gained attention in nanomedicine due to their unique properties, making them promising for drug delivery and gas therapies. This study explores the size distribution, concentration, and production of nanobubbles containing hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), and oxyhydrogen gas (HHO). Nanobubbles were generated using a carbon ceramic membrane, cycled 30 times through a pressure vessel, and treated with ultrasound at 40 kHz. Their size and distribution were analyzed using Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA). The results showed that H2 nanobubbles had relatively uniform distribution (mode: 93 nm; mean:114 nm; median: 95 nm, making them suitable for targeted drug delivery. O2 nanobubbles had a broader size range (mode: 73 nm; mean: 167 nm; median: 114 nm), which could enhance oxygenation therapies. HHO nanobubbles struck a balance between uniformity and variability (mode: 78 nm; mean: 116 nm; median: 89 nm). In terms of particle concentration, HHO nanobubbles had the highest count (412 million p/mL), followed by H2 (284 million p/mL) and O2 (65.2 million p/mL). O2 nanobubbles had the highest mass concentration at standard conditions (1.429 mg/mL). Despite these differences, all gases maintained a similar safety level (3.00E-05%). These findings highlight the significance of gas type and processing methods in determining nanobubble characteristics. H2 nanobubbles may be ideal for precise therapeutic applications, O2 nanobubbles for enhanced oxygen delivery, and HHO nanobubbles for a versatile range of treatments. Reprocessing and ultrasound treatments were shown to increase particle count and improve nanobubble stability, making them valuable techniques in nanobubble production for medical applications. © 2026 Author(s).
Indonesia Molecule Institute, Indonesia; Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Islam Indonesia, Indonesia; Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Universitas Brawijaya, Indonesia
