Akhmad Sabarudin, Saidun Fiddaroini, Ahmad Luthfi Fahmi, Abdul Munir Roja'i, Isadora Evani Salsabila, Aulanni'am, Setyawan Purnomo Sakti, Hani Susianti
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a significant global health concern, exacerbated by rising rates of comorbidities like diabetes and hypertension. Early detection of CKD is crucial, particularly through monitoring the albumin-creatinine ratio (ACR), a key biomarker of renal function. This study introduces a 3D-connector microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (3D-µPADs) for detecting the ACR. The device integrates gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with alkaline picrate and bromocresol green (BCG) as reagents for creatinine and albumin detection, respectively, enhancing the colorimetric response and extending the reaction distance for more accurate measurements. The 3D-µPADs leverages a unique 3D wax-printed connector design to prevent premature reagent mixing, ensuring accurate and controlled capillary action. Parameter optimization ascertained ideal conditions, including reagent concentrations (0.05 M picric acid and 5 mM BCG), a single immobilization cycle, and a reaction time of 10 min, resulting in high accuracy and precision of the ACR analysis in urine samples. Method validation confirmed good linearity (R2 = 0.99), high precision (RSD ≤ 2 %) and good recovery test across ACR concentrations, demonstrating the device's reliability. Human urine sample testing compared 3D-µPAD-based ACR measurements with conventional urine analyzers, showing consistent results with a mean accuracy of 93.48 %, particularly effective in the normal, microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria range for early CKD detection. This 3D-µPAD enables fast and precise ACR measurement through both quantitative and semi-quantitative analysis. The single sample zone simplifies detection, making data acquisition more efficient. Its low-cost, distance-based design makes it ideal for point-of-care and community-based CKD screening, improving global diagnostic accessibility. © 2025 Elsevier B.V.
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Brawijaya University, Jl Veteran, Malang, 65145, Indonesia; Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Brawijaya University, Jl Veteran, Malang, 65145, Indonesia; Department of Clinical Pathology, Brawijaya University, Dr. Saiful Anwar General Hospital, Malang, 65112, Indonesia
