Shahzad Farid, Muhammad Fareed, Majid Raza, Ahmad Faizuddin
This study developed a model of non-economic exploitation using Marxian theory and Bourdieusian methods. A survey of 275 respondents from Hindu, Sikh, and Christian minorities in Pakistan assessed religious, cultural, and social exploitation. Using CB-SEM, findings revealed unequal distribution of structural resources, with minorities having fewer than the majority. Religious, cultural, and social exploitation were significantly related (p < 0.05), with religious exploitation being the strongest predictor of the others. The study concludes that minority–majority (MM) relations are exploitative in non-economic terms, prompting minority resistance. Future research should evaluate the impact of exploitation and the extent of minority responses. © 2025 by the authors.
Department of Sociology, University of Okara, Okara, 56130, Pakistan; School of Business, VIZJA University, Warsaw, 01-043, Poland; Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Brawijaya, Jawa Timur, Malang, 65145, Indonesia; School of Multimedia Technologies and Communication, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, 06010, Malaysia; School of Education and Liberal Arts, INTI International University, Nilai, 71800, Malaysia
