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Background Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is common and ranks among the leading causes of mortality and morbidity. This analysis aimed to present global CKD estimates using the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2023 to inform evidence-based policies for CKD identification and treatment. Methods This analysis focused on adults aged 20 years and older over the period 1990 to 2023, from 204 countries and territories. Data sources used were published literature, vital registration systems, kidney failure treatment registries, and household surveys. Estimates of CKD burden, including deaths, incidence, prevalence, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), were produced using a Cause of Death Ensemble model and a Bayesian meta-regression analytical tool. A comparative risk assessment approach estimated the proportion of cardiovascular deaths attributable to impaired kidney function and estimated risk factors for CKD. Findings Globally, in 2023, 788 million (95% uncertainty interval 743–843) people aged 20 years and older were estimated to have CKD, up from 378 million (354–407) in 1990. The global age-standardised prevalence of CKD in adults was 14·2% (13·4–15·2), a relative rise of 3·5% (2·7–4·1) from 1990. The region with the highest age-standardised prevalence was north Africa and the Middle East (18·0%; 16·9–19·4). Most people had stage 1–3 CKD, with a combined prevalence of 13·9% (13·1–15·0). In 2023, CKD was the ninth leading cause of death globally, accounting for 1·48 million (1·30–1·65) deaths, and the 12th leading cause of DALYs, with an age-standardised DALY rate of 769·2 (691·8–857·4) per 100 000. Impaired kidney function as a risk factor accounted for 11·5% (8·4–14·5) of cardiovascular deaths. High fasting plasma glucose, body-mass index, and systolic blood pressure were all leading risk factors for CKD DALYs. Interpretation CKD is a major global health issue, with rising prevalence and increasing importance as a cause of death and as a risk factor for cardiovascular death. A better understating of aetiology, appropriate screening, and implementation programmes are needed to translate advances in CKD treatment into improved patient outcomes. Funding Gates Foundation, Wellcome, US National Kidney Foundation, and US National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 license.
School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom; Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, United States; Department of Nursing, Al Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department of Epidemiology, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; National Institute of Epidemiology, Indian Council of Medical Research, Chennai, India; School of Health Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan; Department of Internal Medicine, Federal Medical Centre, Abuja, Nigeria; Department of Cardiovascular Disease, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, United States; Biochemistry Department, Abadan University of Medical Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Sokoto, Nigeria; Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Lagos, Nigeria; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates; College of Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; School of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Centre for Social Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT, Australia; Translational Research Team, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Melanoma Institute Australia, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo, Nigeria; Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Public Health, Universitas Padjadjaran (Padjadjaran University), Bandung, Indonesia; School of Public Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Health and Biological Sciences, Abasyn University, Peshawar, Pakistan; Department of Natural Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon; Department of Research, King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital & Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran; Department of Epidemiology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Neuroscience, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Institute of Endemic Diseases, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Centre for Research Impact & Outcome, Chitkara University, Punjab, India; School of Nursing, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia; Department of Medicine, Fatima Memorial Hospital College of Medicine and Dentistry, Lahore, Pakistan; Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States; National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Nephro-Urology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Cardiology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Department of Communicable Diseases, Ministry of Health, Muscat, Oman; Middle East, Eurasia, and Africa Influenza Stakeholders Network, Muscat, Oman; Department of Geriatric and Long Term Care, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Rumailah Hospital, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Division of Public Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States; Faculty of Pharmacy, Philadelphia University, Amman, Jordan; School of Pharmacy, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; Department of Research and Development, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States; Clinical Epidemiology Center, US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), St. Louis, MO, United States; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Al-Ayen Iraqi University, Thi-Qar, Iraq; Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, University of Science and Technology, Sana'a, Yemen; Department of Community and Mental Health, Al al-Bayt University, Mafraq, Jordan; College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; School of Pharmacy, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States; College of Nursing, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; Pediatric Department, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Kidney and Pancreas Health Center, King Faisal Specialist Hospital & Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India; Center for Biotechnology and Microbiology, University of Swat, Swat, Pakistan; Biomedical Engineering Department, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Clinical and Community Pharmacy, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Faculty of Nursing, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia; Department of Urology, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Nursing Faculty, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia; Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Faculty of Health Sciences, Equator University of Science and Technology, Masaka, Uganda; Research Group in Health Economics, Universidad de Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia; Research Group in Hospital Management and Health Policies, Universidad de la Costa, Barranquilla, Colombia; Department of Medical Sciences, Azal University for Human Development, Sana'a, Yemen; Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Science and Technology of Fujairah, Fujairah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sana'a University, Sana'a, Yemen; Laboratory Medicine Department, Al-Baha University, Al-Aqiq, Saudi Arabia; Food and Beverages Safety Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran; Department of Population and Behavioural Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Center for Biomedical Image Computing & Analytics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, India; Rural Health Research Institute, Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine and Public Health, Ateneo De Manila University, Pasig City, Philippines; Inter-Agency Committee on Environmental Health, Department of Health Philippines, Manila, Philippines; Internal Medicine Directorate, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; ARISES Project, Centre for Genomics and Precision Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Research and Development Unit, InnovateHealth Africa, Lagos, Nigeria; Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; School of Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden; Department of Biotechnology, Sri Ramaswamy Memorial Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, India; Deakin Health Economics/School of Health and Social Development, Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Nursing Department, Institute of Technology and Health Science RS dr Soepraoen, Malang, Indonesia; Faculty of Health Science, Institute of Technology and Health Science RS dr Soepraoen, Malang, Indonesia; Adelaide School of Nursing, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; College of Medicine and Health Science, Bahir Dar University, BAHIR DAR, Ethiopia; Faculty of Nursing, Philadelphia University, Amman, Jordan; Department of Computer Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Physiotherapy, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Nigeria; School of Nursing and Public Health, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa; Department of Anesthesia, Cihan University -Sulaimaniya, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Department of Basic Sciences, University of Sulaimani, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Geriatric Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy; Directorate of Quality Assurance, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan; Department of Medical Informatics, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Optimal Aging Institute, New York University, New York, NY, United States; College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Center of Innovation, Technology and Education (CITE), Anhembi Morumbi University, São José dos Campos, Brazil; Department of Hypertension, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; Polish Mothers' Memorial Hospital Research Institute, Lodz, Poland; Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States; Clinical Sciences Department, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Gorakhpur, India; University Institute of Food Science and Technology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Community Medicine, Employees State Insurance-PostGraduate Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Kolkata, India; School of Public Health, Dr. D. Y. Patil University, Mumbai, India; Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Department of Nursing, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia; Department of Nursing, Debre Berhan University, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia; Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences (UCIBIO), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Department of Public Health, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, United States; Global Health Neurology Lab, NSW Brain Clot Bank, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Division of Cerebrovascular Medicine and Neurology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Japan; Department of General Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; Laboratory of Translational Medicine and Nanotherapeutics, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India; Department of Medical Lab Technology, Chandigarh University, Mohali, India; Independent Consultant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; School of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Community & Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Tamil Nadu, Ramanathapuram, India; Department of Internal Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Internal Medicine Department, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Ladoke Akintola University, Ogbomoso, Nigeria; Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Internal and Geriatric Medicine, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Board of Directors, Argentine Society of Medicine, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Center of Innovation, Technology and Education (CITE), Anhembi Morumbi University, Sao Jose dos Campos, Brazil; Center for Nutrition and Health Research, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico; Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Faculty of Health Sciences, University Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal; Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; MultiMedica Sesto San Giovanni IRCCS, Sesto San Giovanni, Italy; Graduate Program in Nutrition and Health, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria, Brazil; College of Public Health, Medical, and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia; Department of Public Health, University of Mataram, Mataram, Indonesia; Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Semey Medical University (SMU), Semey, Kazakhstan; Department of Community Medicine, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Sawangi, India; Department of Epidemiology, University of Texas, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Biology, Al-Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China; School of Chinese Medicine (Teaching and Research Division), Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; Division of Infectious Diseases, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Department of Community Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Wardha, India; School of Public Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; The Interdisciplinary Research Group on Biomedicine and Health, VNU International School (VNUIS), Hanoi, Viet Nam; Faculty of Applied Sciences, VNU International School (VNUIS), Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Health Informatics, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Health Data Research UK, London, United Kingdom; Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Research Center on Public Health (CESP), University of Milan Bicocca, Monza, Italy; Laboratory of Public Health, Instituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS (Italian Auxological Institute), Milan, Italy; Department of Nephrology, Hospital Dr. Gustavo Nelson Collado Rios, Chitre, Panama; Institute of Medical Sciences, Las Tablas, Panama; Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Research Center for Child Psychiatry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Health Statistics and Informatics, Public Health Division, Northern Territory Government, Darwin, WA, Australia; Public Health Foundation of India, Gurugram, India; Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Biochemistry, Ministry of Health and Welfare, New Delhi, India; Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Chettinad Hospital & Research Institute, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Chennai, India; JSS Medical College Department of Biochemistry, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara Academy of Health Education and Research, Mysuru, India; Department of Pharmacy, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Pharmacology Division, Center for Life Sciences Research Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Research Department, Planetary Health Research Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal; Institute of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Research Department, Nepal Health Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal; Institute of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Public Health Intelligence Unit, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico; College of Health Sciences, VinUniversity, Ha Noi, Viet Nam; Institute of Health Economics and Technology (iHEAT), Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Medicine, Can Tho University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Can Tho, Viet Nam; Institute for Global Health Innovations, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Faculty of Medicine, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Department of Medical, Surgical, and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy; Cardio-Thoraco-Vascular Department, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Giuliano Isontina, Trieste, Italy; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Department of Medicine, Bangalore Medical College and Research Institute, Bangalore, India; Postgraduate Program in Epidemiology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rajkot, India; School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia (University of Science Malaysia), Kubang Kerian, Malaysia; Advanced Nursing Department, Universitas Airlangga (Airlangga University), Surabaya, Indonesia; La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Faculty of Science and Health, University of Portsmouth, Hampshire, United Kingdom; Department of Microbiology, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo, Nigeria; Biomedical Informatics and Medical Statistics Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Toxicology, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; Faculty of Applied Health Science, Horus University, New Damietta, Egypt; Department of Clinical and Chemical Pathology, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom; Department of Paediatrics, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria; Department of Paediatrics, Lagos University Teaching Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria; Goba College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Madda Walabu University, Robe, Ethiopia; Department of Obesity, Diabetes and Cardiovascular Risk, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico; Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Research Centre for Healthcare and Community, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom; Discipline of social and administrative pharmacy, Science University of Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia; Department of Social Medicine and Epidemiology, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Department of Pharmacy, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia; Department of Social Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus; Institute of Public Health, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin (Charité Medical University Berlin), Berlin, Germany; Medical and Surgical Sciences Department, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Public Health and Health Policy, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan; Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Community Medicine, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wardha, India; Department of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan; Laboratory Sciences Division, National Institute of Epidemiology, Chennai, India; Department of Midwifery, Adigrat University, Adigrat, Ethiopia; Department of Pharmacy, Amman Arab University, Amman, Jordan; Ophthalmic Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Physics, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, United States; Department of Nursing, Aksum University, Aksum, Ethiopia; Department of Hepatology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India; Department of Health Systems and Policy Research, Indian Institute of Public Health, Gandhinagar, India; Internal Medicine Department, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States; National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Centre for Noncommunicable Diseases and Nutrition, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Preventive Cardiology & Medicine, Eternal Heart Care Centre & Research Institute, Jaipur, India; Department of Medicine, Mahatma Gandhi University Medical Sciences, Jaipur, India; Department of Nephrology, Max Super Speciality Hospital, New Delhi, India; Non-communicable Diseases Division (NCD), Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India; Department of Toxicology, Shriram Institute for Industrial Research, Delhi, India; Research Unit in Epidemiology Clinic, Mexican Institute of Social Segurity, Colima, Mexico; Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Medicine, University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq; School of Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran; School of Medicine, Hamedan University of Medical Sciences, Hamedan, Iran; Biochemistry Department, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt; Guthrie Medical Group, Guthrie Medical Group, Cortland, NY, United States; Department of Nephrology, Beijing Chao-yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Department of Ophthalmology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Center for Traditional Medicine and History of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Pharmacy, Marwadi University, Rajkot, India; Department of Medicine, University of Khartoum Faculty of Medicine, Khartoum, Sudan; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Santa Clara, CA, United States; Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; School of Social Sciences, The Apollo University, Chittoor, India; Department of Physics, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh; School of Engineering & Technology, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Department of Internal Medicine, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China; Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China; International Master Program for Translational Science, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Health Promotion and Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Faculty of Pharmacy, Sultan Zainal Abidin University, Terengganu, Malaysia, Malaysia; Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia; Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia; Department of Microbiology, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria; Department of Biotechnology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India; College of Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom; Journal of Biosciences and Public Health, Published by 4-Green Research Society, Journal of Biological Sciences and Public Health, Dhaka, Bangladesh; School of Pharmacy, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Statistics, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, Sylhet, Bangladesh; Department of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacy Practice, Asian Institute of Medicine, Science and Technology, Bedong, Malaysia; Malaysian Academy of Pharmacy, Puchong, Malaysia; Public Health Department of Social Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Japan; Department of General Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Department of Health Services Research, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan; Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Manipal College of Health Professions, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Udupi, India; Department of Health and Safety, Dubai Municipality, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; Department of Laboratory Sciences, Sirjan School of Medical Sciences, Sirjan, Iran; Department of Primary Care Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Division of Medical Research, Sri Ramaswamy Memorial Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, India; Department of Biochemistry, Government Medical College, Mysuru, India; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia; The George Institute for Global Health, New Delhi, India; Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Health Economics and Policy Management, Johns Hopkins University, baltimore, MD, United States; Rothschild Foundation Hospital, Institut Français de Myopie, Paris, France; Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore, Singapore; Department of Community Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Department of Biosciences and Biotechnology, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo City, Ondo, Nigeria; Department of Economics, National Open University, Benin City, Nigeria; Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of Opole, Opole, Poland; Department of Medical Informatics, Kangwon National University College of Medicine in South Korea, Chuncheon, South Korea; Research Department, TobaccoFree Research Institute Ireland, Dublin, Ireland; School of Public Health, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Minimally Invasive Surgery Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pharmacology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India; Department of Endocrinology, Bharti Hospital Karnal, Karnal, India; University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali, India; Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Canberra Business School, University of Canberra, Hawker, ACT, Australia; Kasturba Medical College Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Poche Centre for Indigenous Health, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Regional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana; Department of Research, University of Puthisastra, Phnom Penh, Cambodia; Office of the Executive Director, Cephas Health Research Initiative Inc, Ibadan, Nigeria; Community and Primary Care Research Group, Plymouth University, Plymouth, United Kingdom; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Medical- Surgical Nursing, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Department of Biochemistry, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Internal Medicine, Yale New Haven Health-Bridgeport Hospital, Bridgeport, CT, United States; Harvard T.H Chan School of Public Health - Health Management, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Public Health, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Amity Institute of Forensic Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India; University Institute of Diet and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; NITVAR, Indian Council of Medical Research, Pune, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India; BDStatistics Center for Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India; Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman; University Institute of Public Health, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, India; Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States; Department of Biochemistry, Liaquat University Of Medical and Health Sciences, Jamshoro, Pakistan; Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo, Norway; Department of International Health and Sustainable Development, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States; Department of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; Department of Community Medicine, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India; Endocrinology Department, Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine; Scientific Department, Medical Laboratory CSD, Kyiv, Ukraine; Department of Medicine, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Department of General Practice and Family Medicine, Kharkiv National Medical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine; Department of Epidemiology, IQVIA, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; University Hospital Marburg, Marburg, Germany; Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Udupi, India; School of Pharmacy, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana; Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India; Evidence Synthesis Unit, Partnership for Research, Opportunity, Planning, Upskilling, and Leadership (PROPUL) Evidence, Chennai, India; Department of Demography, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Research and Publication Activity Division, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Center of Medicine and Public Health, Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Pediatrics, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India; Department of Anaesthesiology, Rajendra Institute of Medical Sciences, Ranchi, India; College of Public Health & Health Informatics, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Section of Cardiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; Department of Translational Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom; Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana (Satya Wacana Christian University), Salatiga, Indonesia; School of Nursing, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Nephrology, Pushpagiri Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Thiruvalla, India; Australian Centre for Health Services Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, QLD, Australia; Clinical Research Center, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland; Heart Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Division of Evidence Synthesis, Foundation for People-centric Health Systems, New Delhi, India; Division of Lifestyle Medicine, Centre for Health: The Specialty Practice, New Delhi, India; Unidad de Genética y Salud Pública, Instituto de Ciencias Médicas, Las Tablas, Panama; Ministry of Health, Hospital Joaquín Pablo Franco Sayas, Las Tablas, Panama; Vascular Surgery Department, Cho Ray Hospital, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Department of Thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Nam Can Tho University, Vietnam, Can Tho City, Viet Nam; International Ph.D. Program in Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Research Center for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Dept. of Biomedical Informatics, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Department of Pharmacy, Wachemo University, Hosanna, Ethiopia; Division of Nephrology, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States; School of Medicine, Tufts University, Boston, MA, United States; Nutrition & Health Innovation Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Perth, WA, Australia; Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China; Department of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States; Department of Quantitative Health Science, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States; Department of Urology, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, China; School of Medicine, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China; Shandong Provincial Hospital, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China; College of Mathematics and Computer, Xinyu University, Xinyu, China; Department of Molecular Epidemiology, German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbrücke, Potsdam, Germany; German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany; School of Medicine, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Brazil; Department of Population Health Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States; Dodoma Medical Research Centre, National Institute for Medical Research in Tanzania, Dodoma, Tanzania; Department of Clinical Data Science and Evidence, Novo Nordisk, Plainsboro, NJ, United States; Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Department of Emergency Medicine, Sri Lakshmi Narayana Institute of Medical Science, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India; Research Center, Cihan University -Sulaimaniya, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Department of Primary Care and Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Medicine, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States; Department of Cardiology, October 6 University, 6th of October City, Egypt; Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia; Division of Research and Development, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India; Rabigh Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Non-communicable Diseases and Mental Health, Pan American Health Organization, Washington, DC, United States; Clinical Institute of Medical and Chemical Laboratory Diagnostics, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; Medical Clinic V, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany; Medical Scientist Training Program, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States; Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy; Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, London, United Kingdom; Digital Health and Informatics Directorate, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Department of Pediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India; Department of Public Health, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Urology Department, Yasuj University of Medical Sciences, Yasuj, Yasuj, Iran; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Adigrat University, Adigrat, Ethiopia; University Centre Varazdin, University North, Varazdin, Croatia; Department of Pharmacology, University of Kelaniya, Ragama, Sri Lanka; Clinical Medicine Department, Colombo North Teaching Hospital, Ragama, Sri Lanka; Department of Propedeutics of Internal Diseases & Arterial Hypertension, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; National Research and Innovation Agency, Nab'a Al-Hayat Foundation for Medical Sciences and Health Care, Bogor District, Indonesia; Department of Statistics and Econometrics, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania; Internal Medicine Programme, Kyrgyz State Medical Academy, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan; Department of Atherosclerosis and Coronary Heart Disease, National Center of Cardiology and Internal Disease, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan; Thumbay College of Management and AI in Healthcare, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates; Research and Development Department, Panacea Institute of Interdisciplinary Research and Education, Varanasi, India; Department of Biotechnology, Parul University, Vadodara, India; Molecular Biology Unit, Sirius Training and Research Centre, Khartoum, Sudan; Bio-Statistical and Molecular Biology Department, Sirius Training and Research Centre, Khartoum, Sudan; Urology Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Urology Department, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Health Systems and Policy Research Unit, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; Heidelberg Institute of Global Health (HIGH), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, Messina University, Messina, Italy; AI & Cyber Futures Institute, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, NSW, Australia; The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Clinical Research Development Unit, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Faculty of Biotechnologies (BioTech), ITMO University, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation; School of Pharmacy (SPH), Management and Science University (msu), Shah Alam, Malaysia; International University of Africa (IUA), Khartoum, Sudan; Discipline of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa; Laikipia Health Service, County Government of Laikipia, Nanyuki, Kenya; Clinical Epidemiology Research Unit, Mexican Institute of Social Security, Villa de Alvarez, Mexico; Postgraduate in Medical Sciences, Universidad de Colima, Colima, Mexico; Operational Research Center in Healthcare, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus; Department of cardiothoracic imaging, radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Nephrology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Community Medicine, MOSC Medical College, Kolenchery, India; Department of Applied Pharmaceutical Sciences and Clinical Pharmacy, Isra University, Amman, Jordan; Critical Care Unit, Sheikh Shakhbout Medical City hospital, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Vermont, South Burlington, VT, United States; Institute of Nephrology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, India; Department of Dental Public Health, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Health Policy and Oral Epidemiology, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; Manipal College of Nursing, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; The George Institute Australia, The George Institute for Global Health, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW, Australia; Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Cardiology, Cardio-Aid, Bucharest, Romania; Institute for Research and Training in Medicine, Biology and Pharmacy, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Faculty of Public Health, VNU University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hanoi, Viet Nam; International Medical Faculty, Nam Can Tho University, Can Tho, Viet Nam; Cardiovascular Research Department, Methodist Hospitals, Merrillville, IN, United States; Department of Pediatrics, New York Medical College, New York, NY, United States; Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Center of Excellence in AI-Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; International Islamic University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan; Department of Humanities and Social Science, University for International Studies in Rome, Rome, Italy; Global Research Institute, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, The Women University Multan, Multan, Pakistan; Division of Cardiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States; School of Information, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States; Department of Nursing, Ho, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ghana; Center of Excellence in Reproductive Health Innovation (CERHI), University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria; Department of Applied Economics and Quantitative Analysis, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania; Bioinformatics Department, National Institute of Research and Development for Biological Sciences, Bucharest, Romania; School of Pharmacy, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Medical Physiology, Babcock University, Ilisan-Remo, Nigeria; Department of Medical Physiology, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria; Division of Nephrology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; Julius Global Health, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands; Federal University of Health Sciences Ila-orangun Osun State Nigeria, Ladoke Akintola University, Ila-orangun, Nigeria; Department of Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, IIS-Fundacion Jimenez Diaz, Madrid, Spain; Department of Medicine, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, University of Gezira, Wad Madani, Sudan; Cardiovascular Division, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Faculty of Nursing, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan; Department of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Medicine, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Biosciences and Biotechnology, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo, Nigeria; National School of Public Health, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Department of Community Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj Napoca, Cluj Napoca, Romania; Department of Health Metrics, Center for Health Outcomes & Evaluation, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States; Anesthesiology Department of The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Department of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Vision and Eye Research Institute, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Division of Health Policy and Management, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States; Second Propedeutic Department of Internal Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece; Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Bergamo, Italy; Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, Milano, Italy; Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia; Clinic for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Disorders, Clinical Center of Vojvodina, Novi Sad, Serbia; Center of Excellence in Precision Medicine and Digital Health, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Department of Biochemistry, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, Mysuru, India; Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology, and Informatics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York University, New York, NY, United States; Research Center for Public Health and Nutrition, National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia; Institute of Health and Wellbeing, Federation University Australia, Berwick, VIC, Australia; School of Nursing and Midwifery, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Population Science and Human Resource Development, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh; Health Service Research and Quality of Life Center (CEReSS), Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France; Dr. Rajendra Prasad Government Medical College, Tanda, Kangra, India; Department of Cardiology, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan; Centre for Chronic Disease Control, New Delhi, India; Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Cardiology, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; School of Nursing & Health Sciences, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong; Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; Department of Community Medicine, Shaheed Nirmal Mahto Medical College and Hospital, Dhanbad, India; Dow Medical College, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan; Department of Immunology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Family Medicine, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; Department of Global Health Policy, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Academic Public Health England, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom; School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQ University, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Internal Medicine, Northwest Health, Porter, Valparaiso, IN, United States; Department of Biological Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Egypt; Department of Protein Research, Research and Academic Institution, Alexandria, Egypt; Department of Clinical Research, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil; Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon; Division of Global Health Equity, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Center for Indigenous Health Research, Wuqu' Kawoq Maya Health Alliance, Tecpan, Guatemala; Faculty of Nursing, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; College of Medicine, Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates; Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran; Cardiovascular Department, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt; Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Operational Research Center in Healthcare, Near East University, Nicosia, Turkey; International Center of Medical Sciences Research, Islamabad, Pakistan; Department of Biology, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Nursing and Midwifery, Saveh University of Medical Sciences, Saveh, Iran; Sharjah Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Center for Global Health Research, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; Biotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Faculty of Dentistry, University of Puthisastra, Phnom Penh, Cambodia; College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; Benang Merah Research Center, Benang Merah Research Center (BMRC), Minahasa Utara, Indonesia; Department of Anatomy, Ras Al Khaimah Medical and Health Sciences University, Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Internal Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Center for Clinical and Epidemiological Research, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; Indira Gandhi Medical College and Research Institute, Puducherry, India; Department of Biochemistry, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran; Faculty of Health & Social Sciences, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, United States; Faculty of Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; General Medicine Department, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Dr. D. Y. Patil Dental College & Hospital, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune (Deemed to be University), Pune, India; Department of Medicine, Swami Vivekanand Subharti University, Meerut, India; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States; Center for Medical and Bio-Allied Health Sciences Research, Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates; Independent Consultant, Karachi, Pakistan; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Northwell Health, New York, NY, United States; Division of Nephrology, National Clinical Research Center for Kidney Disease, State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China; Department for Evidence-based Medicine and Evaluation, University for Continuing Education Krems, Krems, Austria; Department of Biotechnology, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, India; Department of Nephrology, Vardhman Mahavir Medical College, New Delhi, India; Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Department of Public Health, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Medicine, Ladoke Akintola University, Ogbomoso, Nigeria; Department of Research and Academics, Kathmandu Cancer Center, Bhaktapur, Nepal; Person-Centered Research, Monash University, Box Hill, VIC, Australia; Division of Gerontology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States; School of Human and Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; School of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Medicine Service, US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Houston, TX, United States; Department of Pharmacology, Government Medical College and Hospital, Chandigarh, India; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, India; Division of Cardiology, University of Texas, San Antonio, TX, United States; Department of Management, Policy and Community Health, University of Texas, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Endocrinology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States; School of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Pathology, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Nutrition and Dietetics Department, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition, Biotechnology and Food Safety, Moscow, Russian Federation; Department of Internal Disease, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Occupational and Environmental Medicine Department, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden; Clinical Research Unit, Projahnmo Research Foundation, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Pathology, Kyiv Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine; Department of Pathology, Medical Laboratory CSD, Kyiv, Ukraine; Department of Human Anatomy, Federal University, Dutse, Dutse, Nigeria; School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China; Faculty of Health Science, Universitas Indonesia Maju, Jakarta, Indonesia; Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Second Medical University, Weifang, China; Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden; The George Institute for Global Health, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States; Department of Public Health, Purbanchal University, Lalitpur, Nepal; Department of Clinical Pathology, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia; Hospital Central Laboratory, Dr Saiful Anwar General Hospital, Malang, Indonesia; Department of Analytical and Applied Economics, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, India; Department of Clinical Research and Development, LUXMED Group, Warsaw, Poland; Collegium Medicum, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Deoghar, India; Department of Pathology, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia; Ateneo School of Medicine and Public Health, Ateneo De Manila University, Pasig City, Philippines; Council of Past Presidents, Philippine Society of Nephrology, Pasig City, Philippines; Department of Public Health Debark University, Ethiopia, Debark University, Debark, Ethiopia; School of Public Health, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia; Department of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States; School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Internal Medicine Department, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India; Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Sam Ratulangi (Sam Ratulangi University), Manado, Indonesia; Faculty of Health Science, Galuh University, Ciamis, Indonesia; Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia; Department of Movement Sciences and Sports Training, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Department of Business Analytics, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA, United States; Second Department of Internal Medicine, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan; John T. Milliken Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, Saint Louis, MO, United States; Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga, Japan; ALS Vietnam Research and Advocacy Initiative, ALS Vietnam, Quang Ngai, Viet Nam; Department of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China; Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; College of Medicine, Shaqra University, Shaqra, Saudi Arabia; Hayatabad Medical Complex, Postgraduate Medical Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan; Sociedad Argentina de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Hospital Vélez Sarsfield, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands; Department of Biochemistry, Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Chittoor, Chittoor, India; Cardiac Electrophysiology, St Bernard's Medical Center, Jonesboro, AR, United States; NUST School of Health Sciences, National University of Science and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan; Széchenyi István University, Gyor, Hungary; Renal Division, Peking University, Beijing, China; National Institute of Health Data Science, Peking University, Beijing, China; Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Heifei, China; School of Public Health, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; School of Nursing and Midwifery, National University of Ireland - Galway, Galway, Ireland; School of Life Course and Population Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; Institute of Health and Wellbeing, Federation University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; University of Adelaide, North Terrace, NSW, Australia; Optimal Aging Institute Department of Population Health, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States; Demographic Change and Aging Research Area, Federal Institute for Population Research, Wiesbaden, Germany; Competence Center of Mortality-Follow-Up of the German National Cohort, Federal Institute for Population Research, Wiesbaden, Germany; Department of Community Medicine, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; Department of Nursing, Universitas Aisyiyah Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia; Institute of Clinical Epidemiology, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Research, Cancer Registry of Norway, Oslo, Norway; Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway; School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Subang Jaya, Malaysia; School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Division of Nephrology, Shanghai tenth people's hospital, Shanghai, China; Australian Centre for Health Services Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Shantou University, Guangzhou, China; Department of Community Medicine, Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, hyderabad, India; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt; Department of Cells and Tissues, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Public Health, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Public Health Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan; Department of Public Health Administration, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, China; School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China; Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States; School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; National Center for Chronic and Noncommunicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China; The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan; Institute Of Public Health, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Pharmacy, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Pediatrics, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea; Department of Biostatistics, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan; School of Public Health, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, China; Department of Biology, University of British Columbia - Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada; Department of Health Sciences, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, United States; Health Investigation Center, Universidad Católica Boliviana San Pablo, Tarija, Bolivia; San Pablo Catholic University Tarija Bolivia, Tarija, Bolivia; Department of Clinical Practice, Northern Border University, Rafha, Saudi Arabia; School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing, China; Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai, China; Department of Cardiology, First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China; Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Tianjin, China; Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, China; Atchabarov Scientific-Research Institute of Fundamental and Applied Medicine, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacogenomics, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland; Clinical Research Centre, An-Najah National University Hospital, Nablus, Palestine
