Rika Ratna Sari, Lisa Tanika, Erika N. Speelman, Arief Lukman Hakim, Rizki M. Ishaq, Danny D. Saputra, Danaë M.A. Rozendaal, Meine van Noordwijk
Farmers make choices about their land-use portfolio based on their experience, incomplete information and social connections. Rather than imposing normative economic or ecological rationales for farmer choices, a participatory simulation game can lead to co-learning. We utilized a plot-level game, Farmer Options, Risks in Complex Ecological-Social system (FORCES), to explore the management of tree and crop diversity in three contrasting landscapes in Indonesia. We assessed farmer management choices, responses to socio-ecological pressures and quantified game impacts on changes in farmer discourse. We found gendered preferences for plant species and land-use practices. Most older farmers preferred tree-based system, while young farmers chose annual food crops, opting for higher income despite risks. Social, cultural, and ecological reasons played important role in decision-making alongside economic factors but depended on the local context. By clarifying consequences of farmers’ choices, a top-down and bottom-up approach can be reconciled in the search for sustainable landscape management. © 2026 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia; Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands; Geo-Information Science and Remote Sensing, Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands; Plant Production Systems Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands; Centre for Crop Systems Analysis, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands; Centre for International Forestry Research and World Agroforestry, CIFOR-ICRAF, Bogor, Indonesia
